Title page
Contents
Abstract/Résumé 4
More and better-quality jobs are needed 8
Increasing labour market flexibility for better job creation 17
Tackling labour market insecurity and encouraging labour force participation 22
Enhancing education and skills to improve youth employment prospects 29
References 38
Table 1. Social security contribution rates were reduced 18
Table 2. The personal income tax could be more progressive 20
Figure 1. Employment rates are low and unemployment is high 7
Figure 2. The working age population will increase and become more educated 8
Figure 3. Job creation in highly skilled sectors has remained limited 9
Figure 4. Unemployment is high among highly-educated people 10
Figure 5. The extent of overqualification varies across sectors 10
Figure 6. Informal jobs are prevalent, particularly among youth 11
Figure 7. The share of informal employees is high 12
Figure 8. Informality prevails through many channels 13
Figure 9. Labour earnings are low and have declined over the past decade 14
Figure 10. The incidence of low pay is high in Egypt 15
Figure 11. Working hours are long in Egypt 16
Figure 12. Policies to reduce informality and improve job quality 17
Figure 13. Labour taxation for the employer remains high 18
Figure 14. Employment protection legislation is strict 21
Figure 15. Social protection spending is comparatively low 25
Figure 16. Women are often out of the labour force due to family responsibilities 28
Figure 17. Formal education in Egypt 30
Figure 18. Trends in enrolment in primary, secondary and tertiary education in Egypt 30
Figure 19. Student performance is low 31
Figure 20. Education spending is low 32
Figure 21. Employment rates of higher education graduates in Egypt 33
Boxes
Box 1. The OECD Job Quality Framework 7
Box 2. Informality across countries 12
Box 3. Fostering labour market attachment: Prospera in Mexico 26
Box 4. Supporting female entrepreneurship 29
Box 5. Partnerships with the private sector: Spain's Centres of Vocational Excellence 35