Title page
Contents
Foreword 2
Executive summary 4
1. Introduction 6
Fostering trust without jeopardising public safety 6
A brief overview of the "crypto wars" 9
2. What is cryptography? 13
Cryptography provides confidentiality, integrity, authenticity and non-repudiation 13
Symmetric and asymmetric cryptography are the two main cryptosystems 13
Cryptography is a vital foundation of the digital world 15
End-to-end encryption 16
Breaking cryptography 17
3. Key trends in cryptography: towards future disruptions? 20
Homomorphic Encryption: the "Holy Grail" of cryptography? 20
Quantum information technologies: a disruptive innovation that presents both opportunities and dangers 23
Technical and other responses to the law enforcement challenge: a trend towards more targeted approaches? 33
4. Conclusion 37
References 38
Notes 48
Table 1. OECD standards related to the Guidelines 9
Table 2. Public sector research investments in quantum technologies in select countries 26
Figure 1. OECD Policy Framework on Digital Security 8
Boxes
Box 1. Overview of the Guidelines 8
Box 2. The US EARN-IT Act and its detractors 11