Title page
Contents
OECD Health Working papers 3
Abstract 4
Key findings 7
1. Towards a common understanding of long COVID 9
There is no single consensus definition of long COVID, though most countries broadly adhere to international guidance 9
Long COVID likely already impacts tens of millions of people in OECD countries 11
Coding standards for long COVID have been adopted, but implementation varies 14
2. Long COVID has been associated with substantial impacts on well-being 15
Many people living with long COVID will have physical and mental health consequences that persist well beyond twelve weeks and leads to increased health care demands 15
Long COVID may be leading to an annual reduction of more than seven million quality-adjusted life years across OECD countries 17
The effects of long COVID have impacted productivity across OECD countries 18
The costs of long COVID could be as high as $864 billion - $1.04 trillion USD across OECD countries 19
Long COVID threatens to exacerbate inequalities laid bare by the pandemic 21
3. Policies and actions taken to address long COVID 23
Primary care represents the main point of contact for treating patients with long COVID in many countries 23
The majority of countries have set up long COVID clinics to help treat patients with multiple or complex symptoms 24
Demand for long COVID services may exceed supply, with long waiting times reported in some countries 27
Patients have been integral to recognizing long COVID as a legitimate condition, and to informing clinical treatment 27
Some countries have actively included patients in developing their policy response to long COVID 27
4. Priorities for improving care for people living with long COVID 30
Improved long COVID monitoring infrastructure is needed in almost all countries to develop a better understanding of long COVID impact 30
A clearer and more disaggregated definition of long COVID could help to improve clinical management and better target policies 30
Policies to tackle long COVID should be informed by other chronic conditions - and help to inform responses to other chronic diseases in turn 31
Patient involvement is critical in designing policies for long COVID patients and ensuring care is well integrated 31
Sustainable investment in long COVID research and development are needed 31
A multi-sectoral policy response is needed to address inequalities and prevent long COVID from exacerbating them further 31
References 33
OECD Health Working Papers 43
Recent related OECD publications 44
Figure 1.1. Most countries have defined long COVID, but time frames differ 10
Figure 1.2. Few countries are able to estimate long COVID prevalence at the national level 11
Figure 1.3. Long COVID prevalence is likely high across most OECD countries 12
Figure 2.1. Estimating the economic and social welfare costs of long COVID 20
Figure 2.2. People in deprived areas are more likely to report long COVID 21
Figure 2.3. Inequalities may exist in the prevalence of significant activity limitation due to long COVID, including by ethnicity and education 22
Figure 3.1. Most countries report having developed national plans for long COVID 24
Figure 3.2. Most countries have developed guidelines for patient's self-management of long COVID 29
Boxes
Box 1.1. The use of the term 'long COVID' in this working paper 10
Box 1.2. What are the symptoms of long COVID, and why does it occur? 13
Box 3.1. Long COVID care pathways 26