Title page
Contents
Abstract/Résumé 4
Introduction 6
The current state of gender equality 7
Policies to improve gender equality 22
Recommendations for fully realising the economic potential of women in Australia 39
References 40
Table 1. Main Australian government benefit payments 24
Figure 1. Gender differences in wellbeing outcomes exist along many dimensions 7
Figure 2. Women in Australia are highly educated 7
Figure 3. Women are more likely than men to report being sexually harassed 8
Figure 4. Most Australians believe the government has a responsibility to promote gender equality 9
Figure 5. The gender labour income gap arises from the extent, intensity and rewards from work 10
Figure 6. Female labour participation has increased substantially 11
Figure 7. There remains scope to further increase female participation 12
Figure 8. The gap in employment rates with the native-born population is larger for women born overseas 13
Figure 9. Employment rates are especially low for single mothers 14
Figure 10. Poverty rates are very high in single parent households 15
Figure 11. Many women in Australia work part-time 16
Figure 12. Childcare is a significant reason for women working part-time 17
Figure 13. The narrowing in the gender wage gap has slowed 18
Figure 14. Women are still underrepresented at the most senior ranks 19
Figure 15. Women are more likely to experience discrimination by employers 19
Figure 16. The gender wage gap increases over the life cycle 20
Figure 17. Gender segregation is apparent across occupations and industries 21
Figure 18. Second earners in a household are usually female 23
Figure 19. The tax and transfer system imposes very high marginal effective tax rates on single parents 25
Figure 20. Women receive a lower share of the benefits from many tax expenditures 26
Figure 21. Women now account for a much larger share of JobSeeker recipients 27
Figure 22. Low childcare enrolment rates partly reflect high out-of-pocket childcare costs 29
Figure 23. High childcare costs contribute to a high disincentive rate for second earners 30
Figure 24. The duration and rate of leave for mothers is low 33
Figure 25. The duration and rate of father-specific parental leave is low 34
Figure 26. Relatively few women are studying and working in STEM fields 35
Figure 27. Remote working has increased more for women 36
Boxes
Box 1. Employment rates of women born overseas 13
Box 2. Decomposing Australia's gender wage gap using HILDA 20
Box 3. OECD Review of Gender Mainstreaming and Budgeting in Australia 22