Title Page
ABSTRACT
PREFACE
Contents
NOMENCLATURE 29
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 30
1.1. Background 31
1.2. Purpose and Goals 33
1.3. Research Scope 36
1.4. Overview of Hypotheses 41
1.5. Methodology Overview 42
1.6. Structure of the Dissertation 45
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 47
2.1. Introduction 47
2.2. Significance of POS in Urban Development 49
2.2.1. Historical Significance and Evolution of POS 50
2.2.2. Overview of the Planning and Design of POS in Seoul 52
2.2.3. Role and Impact of POS in Urban Development 56
2.3. Non-physical Wellbeing: Definitions and Measures 58
2.3.1. Social and Mental Health Challenges Faced by International Students 60
2.4. Environmental Psychology, Student Behavior, and Access to POS 63
2.4.1. Key theories and models in environmental psychology. 63
2.4.2. Environmental Affordances in POS for Students 64
2.4.3. "Good" Access to a POS as Coping Strategies for Emotional Distresses 66
2.4.4. Case Studies: Good Access to POS and Student Wellbeing 69
2.4.5. Dimensions of Access to Public Open Spaces: Physical and Perceived Accessibility 72
2.5. Interrelationship of Access to POS and Wellbeing 73
2.5.1. Empirical Studies on the Effects of Access to POS on Non-physical Wellbeing 74
2.5.2. Urban POS' Impacts on Non-physical Wellbeing 76
2.5.3. Perception and Evaluation of POS Image: Understanding Aesthetic Preferences 81
2.5.4. Measuring Access to POS and Non-Physical Wellbeing 82
2.6. Comparative Studies on Local and International Students 85
2.6.1. Effects of POS on the Wellbeing of Local vs. International Students 86
2.6.2. Environmental and Academic Influences on Student Access to POS 87
2.7. Summary 89
2.7.1. Identification of Gaps in the Literature 89
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 91
3.1. Research Design 91
3.1.1. Utilization of Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 93
3.1.2. Addressing Cultural Diversity in the Study 96
3.2. Data Collection 97
3.2.1. International Graduate Students Data Collection 102
3.2.2. Local Korean Graduate Students Data Collection 102
3.3. Survey Design 103
3.3.1. Variables, Hypotheses, and Hypotheses Assessment 104
3.4. Pilot Test 111
3.5. Data Analysis 112
3.6. Statistical Tools 115
3.6.1. Software Utilized 115
3.6.2. Statistical Techniques 116
3.7. Summary 118
CHAPTER 4. SURVEY FINDINGS 120
4.1. Demographics 121
4.1.1. International Students 122
4.1.2. Local Students 125
4.1.3. Comparative Analysis: Residential Patterns and Proximity to POS 128
4.2. POS Image and Frequency of Visit 129
4.2.1. International Students: Diversity in POS Engagement 130
4.2.2. Local Students 135
4.2.3. Comparative Analysis: Different Engagement with Public Open Spaces 139
4.3. Preferred POS Elements 141
4.3.1. International Students: Diversity in POS Preferences 142
4.3.2. Local Students 150
4.3.3. Comparative Analysis: Nature and Functional Design in Student-Centric Spaces 154
4.4. Perceived Access to POS 155
4.4.1. International Students: Diversity in POS Access 156
4.4.2. Local Students 160
4.4.3. Comparative Analysis: Key Drivers in POS Engagement 162
4.5. Coping Mechanisms and Non-physical Wellbeing 163
4.5.1. International Students 163
4.5.2. Local Students 172
4.5.3. Comparative Analysis: A Cross-cultural Perspective on Non-physical Wellbeing 180
4.6. Summary 182
CHAPTER 5. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 186
5.1. Reliability and Validity Assessment 186
5.2. Regression Analysis 195
5.2.1. Comparative Analysis: City-based POS as A Shared Catalyst for Wellbeing Across Local and International Students 200
5.3. Moderating Effects 201
5.3.1. Results for International Students 202
5.3.2. Results for Local Students 205
5.3.3. Comparative Analysis: Divergent Roles of POS Perception and Awareness in Shaping Non-Physical Wellbeing 208
5.3.4. Compiled International and Local Students for H2d 209
5.4. ANOVA Analysis 211
5.4.1. Results for International Students 212
5.4.2. Results for Local Students 214
5.4.3. Comparative Analysis: Urban Amenities and Nuanced Academic Influences in POS Engagement 217
5.4.4. Compiled International and Local Students for H3e 218
5.5. Summary 220
CHAPTER 6. DISCUSSION 226
6.1. Interpreting Patterns and Preferences: A Comprehensive Reflection 227
6.1.1. Urban and Campus POS: Bridging Cultural Nuances and Enhancing Wellbeing in Multicultural Environments 228
6.1.2. Perceived Access vs. Frequency of Visits in the Connection with Non-Physical Wellbeing 237
6.2. Redefining POS Engagement: Insights on Perceived Access and Its Implications 242
6.2.1. Conceptualizing Perceived Access to POS 242
6.2.2. The Moderating Role of POS Image and Awareness 245
6.2.3. Implications of The Importance of Perceived Access to Current Regulation and Studies of POS 247
6.3. Harmonizing Space with Diversity: POS Design for a Global Student Body 252
6.3.1. Image of POS and Preferred Elements in POS 253
6.3.2. Visit Frequency and Perceived Access to POS 256
CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS 260
7.1. Overview of the Methodology 260
7.1.1. Limitations of the Methodology 262
7.1.2. Advantages of the Methodology 264
7.2. Key Findings and Novelty of the Study 265
7.3. The Significance of the Study 267
7.4. Future Research 269
REFERENCES 272
국문 초록 282
APPENDICES 321
A. Graphical representations of specific preferences details for each student group based on the regional origin. 321
B. Questionnaire for International Students 331
C. Questionnaire for Local Korean Students 355
Table 1. Primary References Utilized for Research Design and Questionnaire Construction. 82
Table 2. List of operational definition for all relevant variables 110
Table 3. Average Visit Frequency to POS by Countries 133
Table 4. Preferred Activities and Supportive Elements in POS in the City based on Regional Base 143
Table 5. Preferred Activities and Supportive Elements in POS on Campus based on Regional Base 145
Table 6. Preferred Relaxation Elements in POS in the City based on Regional Base 149
Table 7. Preferred Relaxation Elements in POS on Campus based on Regional Base 149
Table 8. Perceived access to POS score based on the origin of international students. 158
Table 9. Validity and reliability assessment to the international student's sample 187
Table 10. Validity and reliability assessment to the local student's sample 190
Table 11. The construct validity for access to POS on campus and in the city for both international and local students. 193
Table 12. Multiple regression results between frequency of visits and perceived access to POS toward the non-physical wellbeing for international students. 196
Table 13. Multiple regression results between frequency of visits and perceived access to POS toward the non-physical wellbeing for local students. 198
Table 14. Regression analysis results including moderating variables for international students. 203
Table 15. Regression analysis results including moderating variables for local students. 206
Table 16. Regression analysis including foreign/local status on the relationship between access to POS and non-physical wellbeing 209
Table 17. ANOVA analysis on the relationships between several demographic characters and access to POS on campus by international student respondents. 213
Table 18. ANOVA analysis on the relationships between several demographic characters and access to POS in the city by international student respondents. 214
Table 19. ANOVA analysis on the relationships between several demographic characters and access to POS on campus by local student respondents. 215
Table 20. ANOVA analysis on the relationships between several demographic characters and access to POS in the city by local student respondents. 216
Table 21. ANOVA analysis on the relationships between several demographic characters and access to POS on campus by local student respondents. 218
Table 22. Summary of the hypothesis testing 221
Table 23. The highest and lowest ratings for the image of POS 254
Table 24. normalized score for visit frequency and perceived access to POS 257
Figure 1. Number of international students in South Korea from 2003 to 2020 32
Figure 2. The scope of non-physical wellbeing mentioned in this study. 37
Figure 3. The two types of POS used as the subject of this study. 40
Figure 4. The flowchart of the study 44
Figure 5. Various POS from all around the world 49
Figure 6. Types of POS found in Seoul. From left to right: Seoripul Park, Yeoeuido Park (the garden section), a children's park (a playground type of POS), and Hangang Park (a... 52
Figure 7. The transformation of urban POS in Seoul 54
Figure 8. The distribution and number of POS in Seoul city 56
Figure 9. Harvard Yard, Harvard University 69
Figure 10. Philosopher's Walk, University of Toronto 70
Figure 11. The Central Plaza, University of Cape Town 71
Figure 12. The Central Park, New York City 76
Figure 13. The High Line, New York City 78
Figure 14. The illustration of Garden Bridge Project, London 79
Figure 15. Cheonggyecheon Stream 80
Figure 16. Map of Seoul and the 10 locations of the universities where the questionnaire was distributed. 93
Figure 17. Examples of POS on campus and in the city referred to in this study. 99
Figure 18. The statistical model adapted in this study. 106
Figure 19. Pivotal stages of the study. 119
Figure 20. The percentage of the gender and nationality of the international student respondents. 122
Figure 21. Study area and degree level distribution of international student respondents. 123
Figure 22. Length of stay in Korea (left), proximity of residence to a cafe and the living situation (right). 124
Figure 23. The gender distribution (left) and the degree level distribution (right) of the local students. 126
Figure 24. The "living alone - roommate" situation (left) and proximity to cafes from the residential location (right) of the local students. 127
Figure 25. International student respondents' awareness of POS benefits to non-physical wellbeing (left) and the percentage of international students strongly agreeing that POS... 131
Figure 26. Frequency of visit to POS on campus (left) and POS in the city (right) of the international students. 132
Figure 27. International students' image of POS on campus (left) and international students' image of POS in the city (right). 134
Figure 28. Projection of living situation on awareness of POS' benefits towards non-physical wellbeing by local students 136
Figure 29. Frequency of visits to POS on campus (left) and to POS in the city (right) of the local student respondents. 138
Figure 30. Local students' image of POS on campus (left) and image of POS in the city (right). 139
Figure 31. The top activities preferred by international students in POS on campus. 142
Figure 32. The top activities preferred by international students in POS in the city (left) and its supporting elements (right). 144
Figure 33. Elements in the POS on campus that help with the relaxation effect (left) and elements that need to be improved (right). 147
Figure 34. Elements in the POS in the city that help with the relaxation effect (left) and elements that need to be improved (right). 147
Figure 35. The activities that are often conducted in POS in the city and its respective supporting elements. 151
Figure 36. Relaxation effect of POS on campus (left) and POS in the city (right). 152
Figure 37. Elements that help respondents relax in POS in the city and the elements that could be improved. 153
Figure 38. Average value of variables related to access to POS on campus by international students. 157
Figure 39. Average value of variables related to access to POS in the city by international students. 159
Figure 40. Average value of variables related to access to POS on campus (left) and POS in the city (right) by the local students. 161
Figure 41. The source of stress during graduate study in Korea, categorized by the degree level by the international student respondents. 164
Figure 42. The social challenges faced during graduate study in Seoul, categorized by the degree level by the international student respondents. 166
Figure 43. Coping mechanism, categorized by the degree level by the international student respondents. 167
Figure 44. Social wellbeing of the international student respondents 168
Figure 45. Visualization of access to POS towards social wellbeing of the international students 170
Figure 46. The average score of each variable comprising perceived mental wellbeing. 171
Figure 47. Visualization of access to POS towards mental wellbeing of the international students 172
Figure 48. Social challenges faced during graduate study by the local students. 174
Figure 49. Preferred coping mechanism by the local students. 175
Figure 50. Perceived social wellbeing scores by local students. 176
Figure 51. Visualization of access to POS towards social wellbeing of the local students 177
Figure 52. Perceived mental wellbeing scores by local students. 178
Figure 53. Visualization of access to POS towards mental wellbeing of the local students 179
Figure 54. (Above) the positive/negative correlation between frequency of visitors to POS on campus and in the city; (below) perceived access to POS on campus and in the city... 197
Figure 55. (Above) the positive/negative correlation between frequency of visitors to POS on campus and in the city; (below) perceived access to POS on campus and in the city... 200
Figure 56. Whisker Plots showing ANOVA analysis results on the relationships between several demographic characters and access to POS on campus by international student respondents. 212
Figure 57. Whisker Plots showing ANOVA analysis results on the relationships between several demographic characters and access to POS on campus by local student respondents. 217
Figure 58. From left to right: Gyeongui Line Book Street, Seong Buk Stream, and CheonggyeCheon Area 229
Figure 59. Comparison of the image of POS on campus and POS in the city by international students (right) and by local students (left). 232
Figure 60. Yonsei's Baekyang-ro (left) and Ewha's ECC Plaza 235
Figure 61. Correlation between access to POS and non-physical wellbeing 240
Figure 62. Heat maps showing the correlation between access to POS and non-physical wellbeing 246
Figure 63. Several guidelines and regulations in Seoul regarding POS 248
Equation 1. The original Cochran formula (left) and the modified formula for small population (right).The original Cochran formula (left) and the modified formula for small... 100
Equation 2. Multiple regression equation used in this study 104
Equation 3. Equation model for the moderating analysis 105
Equation 4. ANOVA equation used in this study 105