Title Page
Abstract
Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction 10
Background of the Study 11
Problem Statement 15
Purpose of the Study 18
Research Questions 22
Significance of the Study 22
Significance to Theory 23
Significance to Practice 26
Limitations of the Study 30
Summary 35
Chapter 2. Literature Review 38
Review of Theoretical Research 46
Review of Empirical Evidence 73
Summary 96
Chapter 3. Research Method(s) 100
Data Description 104
Estimation Strategy 128
Summary 139
Chapter 4. Results 142
Determinants of English Proficiency 143
Gender Gap in English Proficiency Across Generations 156
Returns to English Proficiency 161
Summary 166
Chapter 5. Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations 169
Discussion 169
Conclusions 180
Implications 183
Recommendations 186
References 189
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of English proficiency 111
Table 2. English proficiency by gender 114
Table 3. English proficiency by age 115
Table 4. English proficiency by schooling 116
Table 5. English proficiency by marital status 117
Table 6. English proficiency by health condition 119
Table 7. English proficiency by workplace 120
Table 8. English proficiency by working city 121
Table 9. English proficiency by immersive English study experience 122
Table 10. English proficiency by investment on English 123
Table 11. English proficiency by siblings 125
Table 12. English proficiency by labor market characteristics 127
Table 13. Descriptive statistics of English proficiency, gender and age 128
Table 14. Variables for t-tests of determinants of English proficiency 145
Table 15. T-test statistics of differences between level of English proficiency 153
Table 16. Logit results for determinants of English proficiency 155
Table 17. Variables for gender gap English proficiency across generation 159
Table 18. Gender differences in English proficiency by age group 160
Table 19. T-tests results of treatment effect on respondent's annual income changes 165
Figure 1. Propensity score matching 163