Title Page
ABSTRACT
Contents
Chapter I: Introduction 13
1.1. Introduction and Purpose of Dissertation 13
1.2. Scope of Dissertation 15
1.3. Framework and Conclusion of Dissertation 16
Chapter II: Overview of Arctic Shipping Routes 17
2.1. Background Information 17
2.2. Arctic Shipping Routes 22
2.2.1. Definition of Arctic Shipping Routes 23
2.2.2. Geographical and navigational information about Arctic Shipping Routes 26
2.3. Long-standing disputes over Northwest Passage and Northern Sea Route 28
2.3.1. Disputes over Northwest Passage between Canada and United States 28
2.3.2. Disputes over Northern Sea Route between Russia and United States 34
2.4. Current Canadian/Russian Legislation and Navigation within Arctic Shipping Routes 37
2.4.1. Canadian regulation over Northwest Passage 37
2.4.2. Russian Regulation over Northeast Passage 41
2.5. Conclusion 43
Chapter III: International Law and Legal Regimes Relating to Arctic Shipping Routes' Disputes 44
3.1. International Conventions and Organizations acting within Arctic Region 44
3.1.1. International Conventions Applying to Arctic Shipping Routes 44
3.2. Legal Regimes of Water under UNCLOS 51
3.2.1. Internal Waters 51
3.2.2. Territorial Sea 52
3.2.3. Exclusive Economic Zone 53
3.2.4. High Sea 54
3.3. Historic Waters 54
3.3.1. Customary international law 54
3.3.2. UN Judicial Regime of Historic Waters, Including Historic Bays 56
3.3.3. Requirements for title of historic waters 57
3.4. Straight Baseline 60
3.4.1. Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case 61
3.4.2. Straight baseline under UNCLOS 62
3.5. International Straits 63
3.5.1. The Corfu Channel Case 65
3.5.2. International Straits under UNCLOS 67
3.6. Article 234 of UNCLOS 70
3.6.1. Historic background 71
3.6.2. Article 234 under UNCLOS 72
Chapter IV: Legal Analysis on Relevant Disputes relating to Northwest Passage and Northeast Passage 76
4.1. Canadian and Russian claims over the Arctic Shipping Routes 76
4.1.1. Canadian Claims over Northwest Passage 76
4.1.2. Russian claim over Northern Sea Route 84
4.1.3. Conclusion 89
4.2. International Straits proposed by United States 90
4.2.1. Geographical standard 91
4.2.2. Functional standard 91
4.2.3. Arctic Shipping Routes and International Straits 95
4.2.4. Conclusion 97
4.3. Article 234 of UNCLOS 98
4.3.1. Interpretation of article 234 98
4.3.2. Canadian legislation based upon article 234 of UNCLOS 101
4.3.3. Russian legislation based upon article 234 of UNCLOS 103
4.3.4. Polar Code and article 234 of UNCLOS 105
4.3.5. Conclusion 107
4.4. Conclusion 109
Chapter V: Future Utilization of Arctic Shipping Routes 119
5.1. Present Situation within Arctic Shipping Routes' Region 119
5.2. Important International Organizations within Arctic Region 124
5.2.1. International Maritime Organization 124
5.2.2. The Arctic Council 126
5.2.3. Conclusion 128
5.3. Mechanisms embodied in Antarctic Treaty and Svalbard Treaty 129
5.3.1. Antarctic Treaty 129
5.3.2. Svalbard Treaty 131
5.3.3. Conclusion 132
5.4. Arctic Treaty Proposed by Scholars 133
5.5. Conclusion 135
Chapter VI: Conclusion 139
REFERENCE 144