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title page
Contents
List of Abbreviations 12
Abstract 13
Chapter I. Introduction 15
I.A. Background 15
I.B. Scope 16
I.C. Outline 20
Chapter II. General Concepts of PET Imaging 21
II.A. Principles of PET 21
II.B. Design of a small animal PET 27
Chapter III. Image Correction Technique for Artifact and Noise Reduction 37
III.A. Normalization 37
III.B. Decay correction 41
III.C. Lead shielding to reduce random and scatter count 43
III.D. Random coincidence correction 46
III.E. Optimization of rotation angle and angular step sampling 49
III.F. Timemark correction 53
Chapter IV. Phantom and Small Animal Studies 57
IV.A. Phantom studies 57
IV.B. Rat heart and brain 59
IV.C. Mouse bone and heart 61
Chapter V. Summary and Conclusion 64
V.A. Project summary 64
V.B. Conclusion 64
Chapter VI. Bibliography 66
Chapter VII. Appendix 76
A. IDL code for normalization 76
B. IDL code for random coincidence correction 77
C. GATE Macro for angular step sampling test 78
국문요약 81
Table 2.1. Properties of commonly used positron emitting radionuclides 23
Table 2.2. Characteristics of the commonly used scintillators for PET detector. 24
Table 3.1. Half-lives of radioisotopes for PET imaging. 42
Table 3.2. Total singles counts and true, scatter, and random coincidence counts with and without shield. 46
Figure 2.1. Basic physics of positron emission tomography. When one of the radionuclide atom decays, a positron is emitted, is scattered along a random path, and annihilates with an electron. Two back-to-back 511 keV gamma rays are emitted. 22
Figure 2.2. Characteristics and decay scheme of the most frequently used radionuclides, F-18, for PET imaging. 22
Figure 2.3. Schematic of PET system. Following the administration of a positron emitting radionuclide, detector arrays surrounding the object detect the emerging annihilation 511 keV gamma rays via time coincidence and positron lies on the line... 24
Figure 2.4. (a) Each LOR can be identified by an angle and a tangent distance from the center. (b) A collection of all LORs with a common angle is a 1-D projection of the object. 25
Figure 2.5. Projection geometry at a projection angle θ in a PET scanner. 26
Figure 2.6. Simulation geometry of the small animal PET detector modules to estimate spatial resolutions (left) and system sensitivity (right). 27
Figure 2.7. 8 × 8 array of LSO-LuYAP dual-layer crystal (left), the 64 channel position sensitive photo-multiplier with the aluminum mask (middle) and a detector block (right). 29
Figure 2.8. Schematic diagram of a 64-channel position decoder block. 29
Figure 2.9. Schematic diagram of data acquisition architecture of the small animal PET system. 31
Figure 2.10. The pulse starting time is determined by calculating the baseline crossing of the line through the two adjacent samples where the pulse rise has its maximum. 33
Figure 2.11. Sampled pulses from LSO (circle) and LuYAP (square). 33
Figure 2.12. Schematic diagram and 3-D view of gantry design for the small animal PET scanner. 35
Figure 2.13. A small animal PET equipped with 16 detector module and 8 crystal rings developed in our laboratory. 36
Figure 3.1. The coordinate system for the calculation of the 3-D normalization factor. 38
Figure 3.2. Normalization process from data acquisition to image reconstruction. The normalization factor was acquired from uniform cylinder scan. 39
Figure 3.3. Sinogram arrays of Micro-hot rod phantom (left), uniform cylinder phantom as a normalization factor (middle), and corrected sinogram (right). 40
Figure 3.4. Sinogram arrays of Micro-colt rod phantom (left), uniform cylinder phantom as a normalization factor (middle), and corrected sinogram (right). 40
Figure 3.5. Reconstructed images of Micro-hot rod (top) and cold rod (bottom) phantom before (left) and after (right) applying the normalization factor (center). 41
Figure 3.6. True coincidence count (left) and, scatter coincidence (middle) and random coincidence (right) count originated from outside FOV. 44
Figure 3.7. Scatter and random coincidence estimated by Monte Carlo simulation when the length of cylindrical phantom was changed from 10 mm to 100 mm. 44
Figure 3.8. External end shielding (left) and body shielding (right). The lead thickness is 10 mm and inner ring diameter is 80 mm for both of the shielding. 44
Figure 3.9. Normalized total singles counts when the shielding changes from 0 mm to 25 mm in thickness. 45
Figure 3.10. Normalized coincidence counts at 10 ns coincidence timing window when the shielding changes from 0 mm to 25 mm in thickness. 45
Figure 3.11. Random coincidence estimation method from the list mode format data by post processing of delayed method. 47
Figure 3.12. An original sinogram array (left) and the sinogram from a delayed coincidence window (middle) and the subtracted sinogram from the randoms (right). The sinogram image was acquired using Micro-hot rod phantom placed in... 48
Figure 3.13. A transverse slice of Micro-hot rod phantom before random correction (left) and after the correction (right). 48
Figure 3.14. The effect of angular sampling interval on sinogram and reconstructed image quality. Left group is the Monte Carlo simulation data and the right group is experimental result. From the top to the button, angular sampling was increasing... 50
Figure 3.15. The effect of rotation angle on the sinogram and reconstructed image quality when the angular sampling interval is fixed at 1°. From the top-left to top-right, counter clock wise, the rotation angle is 10°, 15°, 20°, 25°, 23°, and 22°. 51
Figure 3.16. The effect of rotation angle on the sinogram and reconstructed image quality when the angular sampling interval is fixed at 1°. From the top-left to top-right, counter clock wise, the rotation angle is 30°, 40°, 45°, 90°, 60°, and 50°. 52
Figure 3.17. The timemark was defined by the baseline crossing method of the line through the two adjacent samples of maximum rise. 54
Figure 3.18. Accumulated count plot as a function of timemark reminder rebinned from the total acquisition counts. 54
Figure 3.19. Flow-chart of the timemark correction algorithm. 56
Figure 4.1. Micro-hot (top) and cold road phantoms (bottom). The phantom (left) consisted of 75 rods with various diameters of 1.2, 1.6, 2.4, 3.2, 4.0 and 4.8 mm arranged in six sectors and their transverse slice of reconstructed image were... 58
Figure 4.2. Surface view (left) and horizontal section (right) of the rat heart. 59
Figure 4.3. Myocardium and Left ventricle were clearly visualized in the transverse slice (top-left) of rat heart. 60
Figure 4.4. Anatomical outline of rat brain (left) and coronal slice of FDG PET image (right). 60
Figure 4.5. Transverse, sagittal and coronal slices of mouse bone scan image. 62
Figure 4.6. A 27 g male mouse was scanned for five bed position and two slice overlap mode. 62
Figure 4.7. FDG study of a 27 g BALB/C-nu male mouse. On the top, the transverse slice, myocardium and left ventricle were clearly distinguished. Bottom-left : sagittal slice and bottom-right : coronal slice. 63
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