The purpose of this paper is to reveal when a triangular relationship between the king, dignitaries, and the Daegan was established in the Joseon dynasty, during which Daegan remonstrations played a significant role.
The system of Daegan, two government offices called Saheonbu (Office of Inspector General) and Saganwon (Office of Censors), in the Joseon dynasty was established in 1401 (King Taejong's first year).
In China during the Ming and Qing dynasties and in Japan following the Middle Ages, controversies and remonstrations were greatly suppressed. However, in the Joseon dynasty, a system in which the Daegan played an important role in state affairs besides the king and dignitaries was established, and unlike contemporary China and Japan, Daegan's remonstration culture developed significantly. It has been pointed out that this culture may be the origin of current media and journalistic culture in Korea.
Research has shown that a three-party system comprising the king, dignitaries, and the Daegan was established mainly during the reign of King Seongjong. However, this study notes that the Uijeongbu (the State Council), Yukjo (the Six Ministries), and the Daegan, which were the basis of this system, were all practically established during King Taejong's reign, suggesting that such a state management system may have been established during King Taejong's reign.
Three research areas are therefore examined: 1) King Taejong and his dignitaries' perceptions of Daegan's remonstrations; 2) The characteristics of Daegan memorials sent to the Uijeongbu; 3) The role of the Daegan in dealing with major issues.
The results revealed that King Taejong and his dignitaries considered the Daegan memorials essential representations of public sentiment based on Confucian civility during the reign of King Taejong.
In particular, during the early and middle periods of King Taejong's reign, there were cases in which the Daegan was punished despite dignitaries advising King Taejong against administering such punishment. In addition, as Saganwon became an independent organization early in King Taejong's reign and Saheonbu and Saganwon were often in disagreement, the dignitaries saw this as undesirable. King Taejong also stated that Daegan remonstrations should adopt a more appropriate method.
During the middle of King Taejong's reign, the way the Daegan remonstrated was reorganized. The method of interlocution was diversified so that a person or two persons of the Daegan could remonstrate. Later in his reign, King Taejong clearly held the opinion that the Daegan was essential to monitor powerful courtiers.
Second, at that time, King Taejong sent important memorials to Uijeongbu for discussion, and after receiving a report on the results, he addressed the matters concerned.
Analyzing the characteristics of the memorials that King Taejong sent to Uijeongbu showed that most of the memorials in other sectors reported on duties, but the Daegan memorials performed a prominent role in presenting critical views on policies, systems, and personnel issues based on the people's livelihoods and the public sentiment of the people. This was the greatest feature of the Daegan memorials.
Third, the Daegan memorials presented critical views on major affairs, including the construction of the capital, Hanyang, the laws related to 'Nobi' (bondservants), and the implementation of 'Jeohwa' (banknotes).
The Saheonbu submitted memorials on most issues on the premise that these would contribute to improving the people's livelihoods and ensuring the stability of public sentiment, but more directly, during major affairs, to establish national discipline and judicial security.
The Saganwon submitted memorials based on the stability of the people's livelihoods and public sentiment more directly regarding major affairs. As such, the memorials of the Daegan, especially those of the Saganwon, affected the administration of state affairs on a fundamental level, calling for the implementation of plans or for revisions to be made.
These findings demonstrate that the foundation of the three-way system in which the Daegan, the king, and the dignitaries participated in state affairs was already established at the time of King Taejong's reign. Furthermore, this suggests that the chaos caused by the Mongol rule of approximately 100 years at the end of the Goryeo dynasty was overcome by Korea's forces and that Korea's state system, which was different from China's, was already functioning.